Complex volcano

A complex volcano, also called a compound volcano, is a volcano with more than one characteristic. They form because changes of their eruptive characteristics or the site of multiple vents in an area. Stratovolcanoes may form complex volcanoes, because they may overlap another from explosive eruptions, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and by frequent eruptions, to make multiple summits and vents. Stratovolcanoes could also shape a large caldera that gets filled in by multiple little cinder cones, lava domes and craters may also develop on the caldera's rim.

Although a moderately unusual type of volcano, they are incredibly extensive in the world and in geologic history. Metamorphosed ash flow tuffs are widespread in the Precambrian rocks of northern New Mexico, which describes that caldera complexes have been significant for much of the Earth's history. Yellowstone National Park is on three partly covered caldera complexes. The Long Valley Caldera in eastern California is also a complex volcano; the San Juan Mountains in southwestern Colorado are shaped on a collection of Tertiary-age caldera complexes, and most of the Mesozoic and Tertiary rock of Nevada, Idaho, and eastern California are also caldera complexes and their erupted ash flow tuffs. The Bennett Lake Caldera in British Columbia and the Yukon Territory is another example of a Tertiary-age caldera complex.

Sumatran tiger

The Sumatran tiger is the smallest of all still existing tiger subspecies. Male Sumatran tigers average 234 cm (7 feet, 8 inches) in length from head to tail and weigh about 136 kg (300 pounds). Females average 198 cm (6 feet, 6 inches) in length and weigh about 91 kg (200 pounds). Its stripes are narrower than other subspecies of tigers' stripes, and it has a more bearded and maned appearance, especially the males. Its small size makes it easier to move through dense rain forests. It has webbing between its toes that, when spread, makes Sumatran tigers very fast swimmers. It has been known to drive hoofed prey into the water, especially if the prey animal is a slow swimmer

Tiger hunting

Humans are the tiger's most significant predator, as tigers are often poached illegally for their fur. The Bengal Tiger is the most common subspecies of tiger, constituting approximately 80% of the entire tiger population, and is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, and India and has been hunted in those countries for centuries. Tiger has historically been a popular big game animal and has been hunted for prestige as well as for taking trophies. Poaching continues extensively even after such hunting became illegal and legal protection was provided to the Tiger. Now an endangered species, the majority of the world's tigers now live in captivity. Tigers were once considered to be harder to hunt than lions, due to their habit of living alone in dense cover and not noisily asserting their presence with roars as often

Forest Horse

Originally from Northern Europe, the Forest Horse, or Dulivial, was a large-boned, slow-moving, heavy horse believed to be the ancestor of the draft breeds of Europe. Although now extinct, the Forest Horse was well adapted to its environment, developing broad hooves, which enabled it to live in the widespread swampy areas, and also a thick and wiry coat which may have been dappled to provide the horse with camouflage.

Stratovolcanoes

Stratovolcanoes have vertical sides with cones that stick out like enormous bumps. They are built up when eruptions of thick lava, tephra, and pyroclastic flows happen. It takes thousands of years for the pressure to construct up enough in stratovolcanoes to cause an eruption. More than one type of magma builds up in stratovolcanoes. They are basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite magma. All of those magmas cause volatile eruptions apart from basalt magma. There are a group of different vents around stratovolcanoes. Some of the vents are cinder cones and domes low on the sides of the volcano. Sometimes stratovolcanoes are called composite cones.

Shield Volcano

Shield volcanoes are huge in size. They are built by many layers of liquid lava flows. Lava spills out of a central vent or collection of vents. A broad shaped, quietly sloping cone is formed. This is caused by the very liquid, basaltic lava which can't be piled up into steep mounds.

Shield volcanoes may be produced by hot spots which put down far away from the edges of tectonic plates. Shields also occur along the mid-oceanic ridge, where sea-floor spreading is in progress and the length of subduction related volcanic arcs.

The eruptions of shield volcanoes are characterized by low-explosivity lava-fountaining that forms cinder cones and spatter cones at the vent. Famous shield volcanoes can be establish for example in Hawaii (e.g. Mauna Loa and Kilauea).

Polygenetic volcanic field

A polygenetic volcanic field is a volcanic field of sprinkled volcanic vents. These volcanic fields, containing many polygenetic volcanoes, are renowned for having more than one eruptive event from the identical vent(s), quite than the more ordinary monogenetic volcanic field. Polygenetic volcanic fields usually occur where there is a sophisticated magma chamber. These volcanic fields may demonstrate lithological discontinuities due to main changes in magma chemistry, volcanotectonic events, or extended erosional intervals, and may last >10 million year period.

Unlike monogenetic volcanic fields, volcanoes in polygenetic fields arrive at huge sizes, such as Mauna Loa, which is the world's main active volcano.

Some types of volcanoes comprise shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, complex volcanoes, somma volcanoes and calderas.

Mammalian lungs

The lungs of mammals have a spongy texture and are honeycombed with epithelium having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are typical of this type of lung.

Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx and into the trachea, which branches out into the main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During exercise, the diaphragm contracts, forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. The rib cage itself is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows.[3]

Pancake dome

A pancake dome is a strange type of volcano found on the planet Venus. They are extensively scattered on that planet and frequently form groups or clusters, though with smaller numbers of pancake domes in every group than is typical for the more ordinary shield volcanos. They are commonly found close to coronae and tesserae (large regions of highly distorted terrain, folded and fractured in two or three dimensions, supposed to be unique to Venus) in the lowland plains. Pancake domes are between 10 and 100 times superior than volcanic domes formed on Earth.

Pancake domes have a wide, flat profile alike to shield volcanos and are consideration to form from one large, slow eruption of thick silica-rich lava. They typically have a central pit- or bowl-like feature alike to a volcanic crater, but it is consideration that these pits form following the eruption as the lava cools and emits gas quite than being a vent from which the lava originated. The surface of pancake domes is covered with patterns of little cracks and faults.

Mud Volcano

The word mud volcano or mud dome is used to refer to formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, though there are more than a few different processes which may cause such action. Temperatures are a great deal cooler than igneous processes. The main structures are 10 km in diameter and get to 700 metres in height.

About 86% of free gases are methane, with a great deal less carbon dioxide and nitrogen emitted. Evicted materials often are slurry of fine solids balanced in liquids which may include water (frequently acidic or salty) and hydrocarbon fluids.

Monogenetic volcanic field

A monogenetic volcanic field is a volcanic field of little, dotted volcanic vents. are noted for having only one small eruptive event at each volcano, as opposite to regular volcanoes that have more than a small number of eruptions from the same vent in excess of a long period in their history, Mount Vesuvius being an example. Monogenetic fields happen only where the magma provides to the volcano is low or where vents are not close sufficient or large sufficient to expand plumbing systems for incessant feeding of magma. Monogenetic volcanic fields can give snapshots of the fundamental region beneath the surface, and may be helpful in studying the generation of magma and the work of art of the layer since the single eruption produced would competition that of the chamber it erupted from.

Some types of volcanoes include cinder cones, shield volcanoes, tuff cones and maars.

Examples of monogenetic volcanic fields:

* Auckland volcanic field, fundamental much of the city of Auckland, New Zealand and its suburbs
* Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field, east-central British Columbia, Canada.
* Parícutin, Michoacán, Mexico

Lava dome

In volcanology, a lava dome or plug dome is an approximately circular mound-shaped projection resulting from the sluggish eruption of felsic lava from a volcano, or from multiple lava episodes of dissimilar magma types. The characteristic dome shape is credited to high levels of silica in the magma, causing the magma to be fairly viscous and thick. The viscosity of the lava prevents it from graceful distant from the vent that it extrudes from, causing it to solidify rapidly and build on preceding volcanic extrusions, creating a dome-like shape.

Domes may arrive at heights of several hundred meters, and can grow gradually and steadily for months or years. The sides of these structures are calm of unstable rock debris. Due to the option of the building up of gas pressure, the dome can experience additional explosive eruptions over time. When part of a lava dome collapses while it still contains molten rock and gases, it can create a pyroclastic flow, one of the most lethal forms of a volcanic event. Other hazards linked with lava domes are the obliteration of property, forest fires, and lahars triggered by pyroclastic flows close to snow and ice. Lava domes are one of the main structural features of many stratovolcanoes universal.

Fissure vent

A fissure vent, also identified as a volcanic fissure or simply fissure, is a linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, typically without any explosive activity. The vent is frequently a few meters broad and may be many kilometers long. Fissure vents can cause big flood basalts and lava channels. This type of volcano is more often than not hard to recognize from the ground and from external space because it has no central caldera and the surface is mostly flat. The volcano can usually be seen as a break in the ground or on the ocean floor. Narrow fissures can be filled in with lava that hardens. As erosion removes its surroundings, the lava mass could stand on top of the surface as a dyke. The dykes that feed fissures arrive at the surface from depths of a small number of kilometers. Fissures are usually found in or the length of rifts and rift zones, such as Iceland and the Great Rift Valley in Africa.

Cryovolcano

A cryovolcano is, factually, an icy volcano. Cryovolcanoes form on icy moons, and possibly on other coldness astronomical objects. Rather than molten rock, these volcanoes explode volatiles such as water, ammonia or methane. Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt, these substances are typically liquids and form plumes, but can also be in vapour appearance. After eruption, cryomagma condenses to a solid form when uncovered to the very low surrounding temperature. Some scientists wonder that the cryovolcanoes on Titan, Saturn's main natural satellite and the second-largest in the solar system, may harbor space life.

The energy necessary to melt ices and produce cryovolcanoes typically comes from tidal friction. It has also been optional that translucent deposits of frozen materials could make a sub-surface greenhouse result that would accumulate the requisite heat.

It is hypothesized that the Kuiper belt object Quaoar has exhibited cryovolcanism in the past. In this case, the source of energy would be radioactive decay.

Complex volcano

A complex volcano, also called a compound volcano, is a volcano with more than one characteristic. They form because changes of their eruptive characteristics or the place of multiple vents in an area. Stratovolcanoes can form complex volcanoes, because they may overlap one more from explosive eruptions, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and by frequent eruptions, to make manifold summits and vents. Stratovolcanoes could also form a big caldera that gets filled in by numerous small cinder cones, lava domes and craters may also expand on the caldera's rim.

Complex volcanoes are varied landforms. In most cases, they happen because of changes also in eruptive habit or in position of the principal vent area. A stratovolcano may form a huge explosion crater that later becomes filled by a lava dome, or several new cones and craters may develop on a caldera's rim. One stratovolcano cone may overlap one more and have multiple summits.

Cinder cone

Cinder cone volcanoes are the most common type of volcanoes. They are vertical sided cones of basaltic remains and are lesser and simpler than composite volcanoes. Streaming gases take liquid lava blobs into the atmosphere that drop back to earth around a single give vent to form the cone. The volcano forms when ash cinders and bombs pile up about the vent to shape a circular or oval cone.

Many cinder cones contain a bowl-shaped crater at the top. Lava flows are frequently erupted by cinder cones, moreover through a breach on one side of the hollow or from a vent situated on a flank. If the crater is completely breached, the remaining walls form an amphitheatre or horseshoe shape around the vent. Lava hardly ever issues from the top (apart from as a fountain) because the loose, uncemented cinders are too weak to hold up the pressure exerted by molten rock as it rises in the direction of the surface through the central vent.

Caldera

Long Valley Caldera a 15- by 30-km oval-shaped depression situated 20 km south of Mono Lake the length of the east side of the Sierra Nevada in east-central California. This area of eastern California has shaped numerous volcanic eruptions in excess of the past 3 million years, including the massive caldera-forming eruption 760,000 years ago. The majority recent eruption occurred immediately 250 years ago in Mono Lake at the north end of Mono-Inyo Craters volcanic chain.

Calderas are found at the tops of volcanoes, where the unique peak has collapsed into an unfilled chamber beneath. The basin, many times better than the original volcanic vent, may be flooded, producing a crater lake, or the flat floor may have a number of small volcanic cones, produced by volcanic activity behind the collapse.

Climate and Mountains

The major differences in climate of mountains are temperature and moisture. Mountains are inclined to have much wetter climates than the surrounding flat land. They receive more rainfall than low lying areas since the temperature on top of mountains is inferior to the temperature at sea level. That is why you often see snow on the top of mountains all year surrounding. The superior the place is above sea level the colder it will be.

Climates change quickly on mountains, becoming colder the higher the altitude gets. This happens since as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to soak up and keep heat. The cooler the temperature the less evaporation there is meaning so as to there is more moisture in the air.

Because of the fast changes in altitude and temperature along a mountain slope, multiple ecological zones are “stacked” ahead one another sometimes ranging from dense tropical jungles to glacial ice inside a few kilometers.

Mountains around the world

Asia

Asia is the major continent in both size and population covering approximately 1/3 of the world's land area and it has about 3/5 of the world's people. It has a number of the world's highest mountains, longest rivers, largest deserts, plains, and plateaus, and thickest forests and jungles.

Nepal

Mount Everest is the uppermost mountain on the earth (measuring from sea level). It rises 8,848 meters over the sea, on the border between Nepal and China.

Japan: Mount Fuji, (uppermost mountain in Japan) 3,776ms
It is a remote volcano, located only 50 miles southwest from Tokyo.

Europe

Britain: Ben Nevis, Scotland 1,343ms

Ben Nevis - Peak Mountain in Great Britain
Snowdon - top mountain in Wales
Scafell Pike - Main Mountain in England (978 meters ~ 3208 feet far above the ground)
Kinder Scout - uppermost peak in the Peak District

Greece: Mount Olympus, Athens 2,917ms
Mount Olympus is the uppermost mountain in Greece.

Turkey: Mount Ararat, 5,165ms
Mount Ararat is a snow-capped volcanic cone, situated in extreme northeast Turkey.

Africa

Africa is the second major continent in area covering about 1/5 of the world's land area and it has the third largest population.
Volcanic activity created most of Africa's highest mountains. The 2 tallest peaks are Mt. Kilimanjaro at 19,340 ft. and Mt. Kenya on 17,058 ft. They are together extinct volcanoes. Even though both mountains go up near to the equator, they have glaciers and are enclosed with snow most of the year.

Tanzania: Mount Kilimanjaro, 5,895ms
The highest mountain in Africa, situated in Northeast Tanzania, near the Kenya border.

Kenya: Mount Kenya, 5,199ms
The second uppermost mountain in Africa. Like Mount Kilimanjaro, it is an extinct volcano.

Australia:

Mt Kosciuszko - Australia, 2228 metres
The highest mountain in Australia, positioned in the extreme southeast bend of the continent. Placed between Melbourne and Sydney in the Australian Alps

South America

Argentina: Aconcagua in Andes 6,960ms
Aconcagua is the highest mountain in the Western hemisphere, located in western Argentina, close to the Chile border.

The World's Tallest Mountain

At 29,029ft (8,848m) Everest is the uppermost mountain in the world, but measured from top to bottom, under sea level, Mauna Kea beats Everest by 4436 ft. (over 3/4 of a mile).

Although Mount Everest, at 29,029 feet high, is often called the tallest mountain; Mauna Kea, an inactive volcano on the island of Hawaii is in fact taller. Only 13,796 feet of Mauna Kea stands on top of sea level, however, if you measure it from its base, which is under sea level, it is 33,465 feet. If you stand Mauna Kea and Mount Everest next to every other, Mount Kea would be 4400 feet taller

Plateau Mountains

Plateau Mountains take place in series when the folds of a mountain chain pass suddenly into the horizontal stratum of a basalt plateau that is mainly denuded of trees and eroded. These topographic forms are, however, really Pseudo Mountains that are produced by the erosion of a plateau

Plateau Mountain Ecological Reserve, at the southern lean of Kananaskis Country, is similar to nowhere else in Alberta. Its broad wind-swept peak supports a remarkable diversity of wildflowers and geological features, with dramatic vistas across the mountains and foothills.

Status

* Plateau Mountain was recognized as an Ecological Reserve in December 1991.

* Ecological Reserves are 'representative or special usual landscapes and features of the region, which are secluded as examples of functioning ecosystems, as gene pools for research, and for education and heritage approval purposes.

* Ecological Reserves give limited opportunities for outdoor recreation and environmental tourism, where they are well-matched with the defense objective.

Volcanic Mountains

Volcanic Mountains are shaped when molten rock or magma deep inside the earth, erupts, and loads upon the surface. Examples of Volcanic Mountains comprise Mount St. Helens in North America and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.

Volcano

A volcano is a physical landform (usually a mountain) where magma (rock of the earth's interior made molten or liquid by high pressure and temperature) erupts through the outside of the planet.

In simple terms a volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rock underneath the surface of the earth. It is a gap in the Earth from which molten rock (magma) and gas explode.

As pressure in the molten rock builds up it wants to escape somewhere. So it forces its way up “fissures” which are narrow cracks in the earths crust. Once the magma erupts through the earth’s surface it is called lava.

Lava

Lava is fluid rock (magma) that flows out of a volcano. Fresh lava ranges from 1,300° to 2,200° F (700° to 1,200° C) in temperature and glows red hot to white burning as it flows.

Magma

Magma is liquid rock within a volcano.

Fault-Block Mountains and Valleys

1 A fault is a break in a rock. We usually associate faults with earthquakes. But did you know that faults can also form mountains?

2 Mountains are created by processes called orogeny. This process typically takes place close to plate boundaries. Actions at these boundaries place strain and tension on the crustal rocks. They are distorted by folding and faulting. Mountains are classified by the method they are formed.

3 Tensions at plate limits often shape faults in the earth's crust. There are dissimilar types of faults. Usual faults are caused by horizontal tension. Part of the crust is uplifted, and part of it moves down. This happens at the line where the rock is out of order, called the fault plane. In an area where there are many faults, mountain ranges can appearance. These mountains are called fault-block Mountains.

4 Fault-block mountains frequently occur where plates are moving apart. The movement causes the rocks to be prolonged. Temperatures are low and the rocks are fragile. In its place of folding, they break into big blocks.

5 Faulting causes a number of sections of the rock to be uplifted. These are called horsts. A horst is a division of the earth's crust that lies between two faults. It is higher than the nearby land.

Block Mountains

Fractures in the Earth's surface, a procedure referred to as taphrogeny, result in formation of fault-block mountains.

If there are two similar faults, the crustal block between them may either rise to produce horst-block Mountain or fall to make a rift valley.

A fallen block is recognized as a graben. The term block mountain may be practical to skewed fault-block and complex faulted uplands.

Block Mountains be in countries like Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, anywhere they appearance basin-and-range landscapes.

Uplifted blocks may have younger casing formations stripped off them, leaving relict landforms as in the Harz and Black Forest terrains of Germany and in the Massif Central of France.

Fold Mountains

Fold mountains are really formed by outside which have been uplifted and folded by compressional forces. This occurs along convergent plate limitations where 2 plates shift towards each other, between continental plates or between a sea and a continental plate. The crust and the rocks get bent and wrinkled, and massive layers of Earth's crust gets uplifted as a result, forming stunning fold mountains.

More well-know examples of Fold Mountains are the Himalayas in Asia and the Andes in South America.

Dome Mountains

Dome Mountains are the result of a great quantity of melted rock approaching its way up under the earth without failure or faulting resulting in a rounded dome. As the dome is raised above its surroundings erosion occurs, and as an effect of erosion, peaks and valleys are formed.

Geological features comprise anything from major landforms such as mountains or plateaus, to ripple script or glacial striations on a rock. The physical processes, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, erosion, and deposition are what make or change geological features.

Mountains are main geological features on the outside of the Earth. Depending on what physical processes created these landforms, mountains can be confidential as different types: volcanic, dome, fold, and fault block. Utah has all four types.

Dome Mountains can be fashioned from hot molten material (magma) increasing from the Earth's mantle into the coating that pushes overlying sedimentary rock layers up to form a "dome" shape. Unlike a volcano, the magma classically does not reach the Earth's surface. Instead, the magma cools under the surface and forms the core of the mountains. Dome Mountains in Utah include Navajo Mountain and the La Sal, Abajo, and Henry Mountains in the southeastern division of the state.

Spring Mountain Ranch

Park Origin and History:

At the base of the magnificent Wilson Cliffs lies Spring Mountain Ranch. This 520-acre oasis was developed into a combination working ranch and luxurious retreat by a string of owners who have given the area a long and colorful history.

Early Ranch History

In the mid-1830's, a campsite was established along the wash that runs through the ranch. The spring-fed creek and grassy meadows formed a welcome oasis for travelers using this alternate route of the Spanish Trail through Cottonwood Valley. The use of the site by pack and wagon trains continued until their replacement by the railroad in 1905. This remote trail was also used extensively by outlaws involved in Indian slave trading, horse stealing and raids upon passing caravans. In 1840, a group of American mountain men and Ute Indians conducted a famous raid on the Mexican Ranchos in California. Mountain Man Bill Williams, a member of the raiding party, brought his band of horses through Red Rock Canyon where he rested the horses from the hard trip across the desert. Apparently he revisited the area several times and for many years afterwards the site of Spring Mountain Ranch was known as the "Old Bill Williams Ranch."

Location and Climate:

Spring Mountain Ranch State Park is located 15 miles west of Las Vegas, via Charleston Blvd., in the Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area.

At 3,800 feet, the ranch is usually 10-15 degrees cooler than the Las Vegas Valley. Temperatures range from below freezing to above 100 degrees, and winds gusting down Sandstone Canyon are not uncommon. The summer season usuallly brings a few thunderstorms and flash floods. Winters are cold, with occasional snow showers.

History of the Black Hills

The Black Hills are traditional hunting grounds for American Indians. The Lakota never welcomed "the whiteman" to these hunting grounds. The first European explorers to see the Black Hills were probably Francis and Louis-Joseph Verendrye. These French explorers were traveling through South Dakota near the Missouri River. The exact route they were using is unknown, but according to Louis-Joseph's journal, on New Year's Day in 1743 they were on a bluff overlooking the Missouri River and were "...in sight of mountains". It was reported that their American Indian guides would not take them any closer to the mountains because hostile bands of Indians were known to live there.

Lewis and Clark heard tales about the Hills from other traders and trappers, but it wasn't until 1823 that Jedediah Smith and a group of about 15 traders actually traveled through them. While fur trade was at its peak, the Black Hills were explored to some extent by adventuresome trappers, but because the hills were considered sacred by the Lakota, most trappers avoided the area. Several reports of the discovery of gold in the "Black Hills" were heard during this time. However, exactly where the gold was discovered was often confusing because the Laramie Range in Wyoming was also occasionally called the "Black Hills".

As immigration across the continent increased there was a marked decline in American Indian-white relations. The Army established outposts nearby, but they seldom entered the Hills Black thinking that to do so would surely cause trouble. Trouble, however, was already brewing. Bands of Lakota reportedly raided settlements and then retreated to the cover of the Hills. Because of this, Lt. G.K. Warren was assigned the task of making a thorough reconnaissance of the plains of South Dakota, including the area known as the Black Hills. The study of the area was supplemented by another reconnaissance in 1859-60 by Capt. W.F. Reynolds and Dr. F.V. Hayden.

Himalayan Forest Research Institute

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla is one of the premier forestry research Institution under the umbrella of Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (an autonomous body under Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India). This regional Institute addresses specific research issues of Western Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

The Mandate of the Institute is to cater the forestry research, needs pertaining to eco-restoration of cold deserts & mined areas and regeneration of coniferous & broad-leaved forests, besides activities on management practices in temperate forests, and in alpine areas too. Popularization of agro-forestry and other related extension activities has been included in its mandate. The Institute also has the national mandate of Eco-restoration of cold deserts and study of regeneration problems of conifer species and has been declared as Centre of Advance Studies for Cold Desert Afforestation and Alpine Pasture Management.

Haleakala Crater

Haleakala National Park

This special place vibrates with stories of ancient and modern Hawaiian culture and protects the bond between the land and its people. The park also cares for endangered species some of which exist nowhere else. Come visit this special place - renew your spirit of adventure amid stark volcanic landscapes, sub-tropical rain forest and the unforgettable experience of hiking the backcountry.

Summit Area

No place you have ever been can prepare you for the experiences and feelings you will have on the summit of Haleakala volcano. The landscape - deeply sculpted, richly colored, and intensely evocative will be unlike any landcape you have known. Visually expansive, the summit area continually eludes any attempt to understand its scale or dimensions.

Weather

Ever-changing and unpredictable
In any given day the temperatures in the park can range from a high of 80°F (27°C) in Kipahulu to a low of 30°F (-1°C) at the summit. In either area clouds and rain can quickly replace warm sunshine.


Summit Area - Mountain and Wilderness Area - Mountain

Weather in the high-elevation areas of the park is highly unpredictable and changes often. Cool temperatures, intense solar radiation, and rapidly moving clouds are characteristic. On average, the temperature drops about 3°F for every 1,000 foot rise in elevation (or approximately 5°C for every 1,000 meter elevation rise), making the 10,023 foot (3055m) summit of Haleakala about 30°F (or 17°C) cooler than the coast. Year-round summit temperatures range between below freezing to highs of 50°-65°F (10-18°C). The outside temperatures can feel much colder because of wind chill and damp, overcast conditions.

You may spend a few hours hiking in the cinder desert landscape, or a few minutes looking for native birds in the shrubland - whatever you choose to do, you will do it surrounded by native Hawaiian plants and animals. The mountain summit is one of the only easily-accessible areas of Hawaii where our rare and endemic species survive and thrive.

Already impressive in the light of day, the summit takes on a new dimension at night when the darkness reveals the brilliant night sky.

Mount St. Helens

Inside the crater of Mount St. Helens, a lava dome was built between October 1980 and 1986 by seventeen eruptions of viscous dacite lava. Each eruption added between 1 and 22 million m3 of new lava to the dome; most of the growth occurred when magma extruded onto the surface of the dome to form lava flows as thick as 40 m and as large as 400 m in diameter. The repeated rise of magma into the dome before the eruptions produced an exceptional pattern of ground tilt on the crater floor that began 2 to 4 weeks before magma extruded onto the dome. This repeated pattern of ground tilt was one of the most reliable measurements of deformation that we used to accurately predict when the Mount St. Helens lava dome would erupt.

At 8,365 feet, the rim of Mount St. Helens provides outstanding views of the crater, lava dome, blast area, and surrounding volcanic peaks. The most popular route to the summit is Monitor Ridge, starting at Climber's Bivouac. Most climbers complete the round trip in 7 to 12 hours. The route begins on the Ptarmigan Trail #216A which gently climbs for about 2 miles to timberline. Above timberline, the route travels over steep, blocky lava flows on the lower slopes and loose, sandy volcanic ash on the upper slopes. In early summer, snow is commonly encounted, especially in gully bottoms.

Mount Erebus

Mount Erebus (3,794 meters), the world's southernmost historically active volcano, overlooks the McMurdo research station on Ross Island. Erebus is the largest of three major volcanoes forming the crudely triangular Ross Island. The summit has been modified by several generations of caldera formation. A summit plateau at about 3,200 meters altitude marks the rim of the youngest caldera, within which the modern cone was constructed. An elliptical 500 x 600 meter wide, 110-meter-deep crater truncates the summit and contains an active lava lake within a 250-meter-wide, 100-meter-deep inner crater. The glacier-covered volcano was erupting when first sighted by Captain James Ross in 1841. Continuous lava-lake activity has been documented since 1972, punctuated by occasional strombolian explosions that eject bombs onto the crater rim.

Mount Erebus is an intraplate volcano, situated at the southern end of the Terror Rift within the Victoria Land basin, a major sedimentary basin with over 12 kilometers of fill and underlain by 21-kilometer-thick crust. The basin is bounded to the west by the Transantarctic Mountains, with 40-kilometer-thick curst (Cooper and Davey, 1985; Fitzgerald and others, 1986).

An older cone of Mount Erebus (Fang Volcano), composed largely of benmoreite, was partly destroyed by an unknown event, leaving a caldera of about 6-kilometers diameter. The modern cone of Mount Erebus, composed largely of anorthoclase phonolite (Kyle, 1977), has largely filled the older caldera, leaving only Fang Ridge (north of Mount Erebus) as a relic of the older cone. A roughly 5-kilometer-diameter caldera developed at the top of the modern cone, and it too has been largely filled (Berninghausen and Neumann van Padang, 1960; P. Kyle, written commun., 1987).

Most historical activity has been confined to the younger caldera. A reported exception was increased fumarolic activity in April-September 1908 and on 17 June 1908, near Abbot Peak, 10 kilometers north-northeast of the summit of Mount Erebus (cited in Berninghausen and Neumann van Padang, 1960). A seismic swarm in roughly the same area was recorded in October 1962 (Ueki and others, 1984; Kaminuma and others, 1985).

A lava lake discovered in 1972 grew slowly until 1976, when it was circular, about 60 meters in diameter. It remained relatively constant until September 1984. Larger-than-usual Strombolian explosions occurred in September to December 1984. Earthquakes were felt, and glow and increased steaming were observed from McMurdo Sound (37 kilometers southwest of the volcano) (P. Kyle and others, in Smithsonian Institution, 1984). The summit crater lava lake was buried by ejecta between 13 September 1984 and October 1984. When the lake was exhumed in December 1985 it was 15 meters in diameter, and it grew to 20 meters in diameter by December 1986 (P. Kyle, written commun., 1987).

Mount Ararat

Mount Ararat (16,940 feet, 5165 m) is the largest volcano in Turkey. Although not currently active, its most recent eruption has probably been within the last 10,000 years. It is located in extreme northeastern Turkey, near the borders with Iran and Armenia. Southwest of the main peak lies Little Ararat (12,877 feet, 3896 m). Ahora Gorge is a northeast-trending chasm dropping 6000 feet from the top of the mountain and was the focus of a major earthquake in 1840. A number of claims by different explorers to have found remnants of Noah’s Ark on Mt. Ararat have led to continuing expeditions to the mountain, many of which have focused their searches on the gorge area.

Ararat consists of two volcanic peaks: Big Ararat (5137 m) and Little Ararat (3,914m). The top of Big Ararat is covered with snow all year long. The Old Testament story of Noah says that Noah’s ark came to rest on Ararat following the Great Flood. This image is a 3-D perspective view looking from the southwest, created by draping a simulated natural color image over an ASTER-derived digital topography model. The image was acquired on 25 June 2002, and is located at 39.75 degrees North latitude, 44.4 degrees East longitude

Mount Jefferson

Mount Jefferson is located in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness area and the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, approximately 115 kilometers souteast of Portland, Oregon, and 80 kilometers northwest of Bend, Oregon. Highway 22 east of Salem, Oregon, provides access to Forest Service roads and trails with lead into the wilderness area.

Mount Jefferson is a prominent feature of the landscape seen from highways east and west of the Cascades. Mount Jefferson (one of thirteen major volcanic centers in the Cascade Range) has erupted repeatedly for hundreds of thousands of years, with its last eruptive episode during the last major glaciation which culminated about 15,000 years ago

Lava Flows:
The youngest lava flows in the Mount Jefferson area are basaltic lava flows from Forked Butte and an unnamed butte south of Bear Butte. Both of these flows postdate the large eruption of Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) of about 7,600 years ago.

Mount St. Helens

Mount St. Helens, Washington, is the most active volcano in the Cascade Range. Its most recent series of eruptions began in 1980 when a large landslide and powerful explosive eruption created a large crater, and ended 6 years later after more than a dozen extrusions of lava built a dome in the crater. Larger, longer lasting eruptions have occurred in the volcano's past and are likely to occur in the future. Although the volcano seems to have returned to a period of quiet, scientists with the U.S. Geological Survey and University of Washington Geophysics Program continue to closely monitor Mount St. Helens for signs of renewed activity.

Within 15 to 20 seconds of a magnitude 5.1 earthquake at 8:32 a.m., the volcano's bulge and summit slid away in a huge landslide - the largest on Earth in recorded history. The landslide depressurized the volcano's magma system, triggering powerful explosions that ripped through the sliding debris. Rocks, ash, volcanic gas, and steam were blasted upward and outward to the north. This lateral blast of hot material accelerated to at least 300 miles per hour, then slowed as the rocks and ash fell to the ground and spread away from the volcano; several people escaping the blast on its western edge were able to keep ahead of the advancing cloud by driving 65 to 100 miles an hour! The blast cloud traveled as far as 17 miles northward from the volcano and the landslide traveled about 14 miles west down the North Fork Toutle River.

The lateral blast produced a column of ash and gas (eruption column) that rose more than 15 miles into the atmosphere in only 15 minutes. Less than an hour later, a second eruption column formed as magma erupted explosively from the new crater. Then, beginning just after noon, swift avalanches of hot ash, pumice, and gas (pyroclastic flows) poured out of the crater at 50 to 80 miles per hour and spread as far as 5 miles to the north. Based on the eruption rate of these pyroclastic flows, scientists estimate that the eruption reached its peak between 3:00 and 5:00 p.m. Over the course of the day, prevailing winds blew 520 million tons of ash eastward across the United States and caused complete darkness in Spokane, Washington, 250 miles from the volcano.

During the first few minutes of this eruption, parts of the blast cloud surged over the newly formed crater rim and down the west, south, and east sides of the volcano. The hot rocks and gas quickly melted some of the snow and ice capping the volcano, creating surges of water that eroded and mixed with loose rock debris to form volcanic mudflows (lahars). Several lahars poured down the volcano into river valleys, ripping trees from their roots and destroying roads and bridges.

The largest and most destructive lahar was formed by water seeping from inside the huge landslide deposit through most of the day. This sustained flow of water eroded material from both the landslide deposit and channel of the North Fork Toutle River. The lahar increased in size as it traveled downstream, destroying bridges and homes and eventually flowing into the Cowlitz River. It reached its maximum size at about midnight in the Cowlitz River about 50 miles downstream from the volcano.

The Holy Mountain of India

Badrinath is a Hindu holy town and a nagar panchayat in Chamoli district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. It is the most important of the four sites in India's Char Dham pilgrimage. Badrinath is in the Garhwal hills, on the banks of the Alaknanda River, at an elevation of 3133 m. The town lies between the Nar and Narayana mountain ranges and in the shadow of Nilkantha peak (6,560m). Badrinath is located 301km north of Rishikesh. From Gaurikund (near Kedarnath) to Badrinath by road is 233km.

Badrinath was established as a major pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara in the ninth century. In recent years its popularity has increased significantly, with an estimated 600,000 pilgrims visiting during the 2006 season, compared to 90,676 in 1961. The temple in Badrinath is also a sacred pilgrimage site for Vaishnavites.

Badrinath has been mentioned as a holy place in scriptures and legends for thousands of years. According to the Srimad Bhagavatam, "There in Badrikashram the Personality of Godhead (Vishnu), in his incarnation as the sages Nara and Narayana had been undergoing great penance since time immemorial for the welfare of all living entities." (Srimad Bhagavatam 3.4.22)

Mount Rainier

Mount Rainier at 4,393 meters (14,410 feet) the highest peak in the Cascade Range is a dormant volcano whose load of glacier ice exceeds that of any other mountain in the conterminous United States. This tremendous mass of rock and ice, in combination with great topographic relief, poses a variety of geologic hazards, both during inevitable future eruptions and during the intervening periods of repose. This report,
(1) explains the various types of hazardous geologic phenomena that could occur at Mount Rainier,
(2) shows areas that are most likely to be affected by the different phenomena,
(3) estimates the likelihood that the areas will be affected, and
(4) recommends actions that can be taken to protect lives and property.

Mount Rainier is carefully monitored for signs of volcanic reawakening, and an eruption that could produce a catastrophic lahar initiated by vigorous release of meltwater is expected to follow days, weeks, or even months of readily detected symptoms of volcanic unrest. Thus, it is likely that there will be opportunity for citizens and communities to prepare for an impending eruption.

Mount Baker

Mount Baker dominates the skyline from Bellingham, Washington, and Vancouver, British Columbia. On cold, clear winter days, dramatic increases in the steam plume rising continuously from Sherman Crater can alarm local residents. This apparent increase in plume vigor occurs because of condensation of steam in cold, calm air. In 1975, however, increased steaming and melting of snow and ice around Sherman Crater did signify a change in heat output from the volcano's interior. Although the increased heat flow gradually subsided, it could have signaled the start of eruptive activity, and precautions were wisely undertaken. So that the public can be warned of, and be prepared for, future eruptions and other hazardous events at Mount Baker, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists are studying the volcano's past behavior and monitoring its current activity.

Modern Mount Baker formed during and since the last ice age, which ended about 15,000 years ago. Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30,000 and 10,000 years ago and, during the final stages of edifice construction, blocky pyroclastic flows poured down most of the volcano's drainages. An eruption 6,600 years ago produced a blanket of ash that extended more than 20 miles to the northeast. This eruption probably occurred from the presently ice-filled summit crater. Subsequently, sulfurous gases have found two pathways to the surface— Dorr Fumaroles, northeast of the summit, and Sherman Crater, south of the summit. Both these area are sites of pervasive bedrock alteration, converting lavas to weak, white-to-yellow material rich in clays, silica, and sulfur-bearing minerals. At Sherman Crater, collapses of this weakened rock created lahars in 1843 and as recently as the 1970's.

Mt.Aconcagua

As the tallest mountain in South America, Cerro Aconcagua (or Aconcagua Mountain) is one of the Seven Summits: the highest peaks on each of the seven continents. Its name is believed by many to come from an ancient native name of “Ackon Cahuak” meaning “Stone Sentry.” It is 6,962 meters (22,840 feet) to the top of the North Peak, making it the second highest of the Seven Summits. Aconcagua is located in the midst of the Central Andes in Argentina, one range east of the ridgeline that defines the border with Chile.

The first recorded attempt to climb the mountain’s summit occurred in 1833 by the German explorer, Paul Gussfeldt. Despite the limitations of mountaineering equipment in that era, very limited cartographic information, and with no knowledge of the conditions around the summit, he nevertheless managed to climb to within 500 meters of the summit

Aravalli Range

The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 300 miles from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan state. The northern end of the range continues as remote hills and rocky ridges into Haryana state, ending near Delhi. The uppermost mountain is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu. Increasing to 5653 feet (1723 meters), it deception near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with the Gujrat District. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the south slope of the range in Rajasthan.

The Aravalli Range is the worn stub of a range of very old folded mountains. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand section to the southeast. As mentioned Aravali hills are from between the oldest of the old fold mountains and collectively form the Aravali hill range in Rajasthan in West India, they extend till Delhi in the heart of India.

Old Fold Mountains are exemplify by having stopped rising higher owing to the cessation of upward push caused by the stopping of lobby group of the tectonic plates in the Earth's crust below them. In ancient times they were enormously high but as have shabby down almost completely by millions of years of weathering. In bleak contrast Himalayas are continuously rising young fold mountains of today.

Mount Assiniboine

Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park is a magnificent place of shimmering lakes, glistening glaciers, sky scrapping peaks and sun-dappled alpine meadows. World renowned Mount Assiniboine, at an elevation of 3,618 metres, is situated along the continental divide near the south east corner of the park and has defined mountain splendour in the Canadian Rockies for over 100 years.

Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park is located west of the British Columbia-Alberta border 48 km southwest of Banff. The park is roughly triangular in shape. The apex of this triangle is at the junction of the boundaries of Banff National Park, which forms the eastern boundary, and Kootenay National Park, which marks the boundary to the west. The southern boundary follows the height of land above Daer Creek and Extension Creek from Kootenay National Park to the Mitchell River, then easterly to Banff National Park and the Continental Divide. The most popular hiking trails to the core area of the park start from Kootenay National Park to the west, and from Spray Lakes via Bryant Creek (Banff National Park) located south of Canmore, from Sunshine Meadows west of the Banff townsite, in Banff National Park, Alberta.

Mount Whitney

Mt. Whitney can be most directly reached by a 10.7 mile (17.1 km) trail from Whitney Portal, 13 miles (21 km) west of the town of Lone Pine on the east side of the Sierra. Ice axes and crampons are needed in spring and early summer, but technical climbing equipment is not usually necessary between mid-July and early October. The elevation at the trailhead is 8360' (2550 meters). The elevation at the summit is 14,491' (4417 meters). Permits for this trailhead must be obtained through the Inyo National Forest.

Many visitors to Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks are interested in seeing Mt. Whitney, the tallest mountain in the "lower 48" states. However, Mt. Whitney is on the east side of the Great Western Divide, a chain of mountains that runs north/south through the center of Sequoia National Park, "dividing" the watersheds of the Kaweah River to the west and the Kern River to the east. Because many of the snowcapped peaks in the Great Western Divide reach altitudes of 12,000' (3657 meters) or higher, it is impossible to see over them to view Mt. Whitney from any of the roads on the west side of the Sierra. The best place from which to see Mt. Whitney is the Interagency Visitor Center on Highway 395, just south of the town of Lone Pine on the east side of the Sierra. Highway 395 can be reached via Tioga Pass in Yosemite National Park (open summer only), or by going around the southern end of the Sierra from the town of Bakersfield. There are no roads across the Sierra in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks.

The Baltoro Glacier

The Baltoro Glacier, at 57 kilometers extended, is one of the best ever glaciers outside of the Polar Regions. It is positioned in Baltistan, in the Northern Areas of Pakistan, and runs through part of the Karakoram mountain range. The Baltoro Muztagh lies to the north and east of the glacier, as the Masherbrum Mountains lie to the south. At 8,611 m (28,251 ft), K2 is the highest mountain in the region, and three others within 20 km top 8,000 m.

The glacier gives rise to the Shigar River, which is a tributary of the Indus River. Several large tributary glaciers feed the main Baltoro glacier. The channel of this glacier is very wide and its central part is a vast snowfield. Small valley glaciers form icefalls where they meet the trunk glacier. The sidewalls vary from very steep to precipitous. The glacier has carved striations on the surrounding country rocks. Moving ice has formed depressions, which serve as basins for numerous glacial lakes

Devil Tower

Devils Tower rises 1267 feet above the Belle Fourche River. Once hidden, erosion has revealed Devils Tower. This 1347 acre park is covered with pine forests, woodlands, and grasslands. Deer, prairie dogs, and other wildlife are seen.

Also known as Bears Lodge, it is a sacred site for many American Indians.

President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower the first national monument in 1906.

Borah Peak

The Borah Peak earthquake is the largest ever recorded in Idaho - both in terms of magnitude and in amount of property damage. It caused two deaths in Challis, about 200 kilometers northeast of Boise, and an estimated $12.5 million in damage in the Challis-Mackay area. A maximum MM intensity IX was assigned to this earthquake on the basis of surface faulting. Vibrational damage to structure was assigned intensities in the VI to VII range.

Spectacular surface faulting was associated with this earthquake - a 34-kilometer-long northwest-trending zone of fresh scarps and ground breakage on the southwest slope of the Lost River Range. The most extensive breakage occurred along the 8-kilometer zone between West Spring and Cedar Creek. Here, the ground surface was shattered into randomly tilted blocks several meters in width. The ground breakage was as wide as 100 meters and commonly had four to eight en echelon scarps as high as 1-2 meters. The throw on the faulting ranged from less than 50 centimeters on the southern-most section to 2.7 meters south of Rock Creek at the western base of Borah Peak.

Other geologic effects included rockfalls and landslides on the steep slopes of the Lost River Range, water fountains and sand boils near the geologic feature of Chilly Buttes and the Mackay Reservoir, increase or decrease in flow of water in springs, and fluctuations in well water levels. A temporary lake was formed by the rising water table south of Dickey.

Mount Baker

Mount Baker (3,285 meters; 10,778 feet) is an ice-clad volcano in the North Cascades of Washington State about 50 kilometers (31 miles) due east of the city of Bellingham. After Mount Rainier, it is the most heavily glaciated of the Cascade volcanoes: the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker (about 1.8 cubic kilometers; 0.43 cubic miles) is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes (except Rainier) combined. Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock, especially in the area of Sherman Crater, are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano: the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated. The volcano rests on a foundation of non-volcanic rocks in a region that is largely non-volcanic in origin.

Mount Baker is approximately 50 kilometers east of Bellingham, Washington. The best view of the mountain is from the Glacier Creek Road off of Highway 542. A 10-kilometer hike, taking off from Dead Horse Road (No.3907) affords closer views of Baker's north side. On the south side of the mountain Forest Service Road 372, taking off from Baker Lake Road, ends near the Schreibers Meadow cinder cone.

Mount Ararat

Mount Ararat (16,940 feet, 5165 m) is the largest volcano in Turkey. Although not currently active, its most recent eruption has probably been within the last 10,000 years. It is located in extreme northeastern Turkey, near the borders with Iran and Armenia. Southwest of the main peak lies Little Ararat (12,877 feet, 3896 m). Ahora Gorge is a northeast-trending chasm dropping 6000 feet from the top of the mountain and was the focus of a major earthquake in 1840. A number of claims by different explorers to have found remnants of Noah’s Ark on Mt. Ararat have led to continuing expeditions to the mountain, many of which have focused their searches on the gorge area.

Mount Elbrus

The Caucasus’ tallest mountain, Elbrus, is 5,642 meters (18,510 feet) high, higher than Western Europe’s Mt. Blanc in the Alps, the European contender if the Caucaucas are instead considered within Asia. Elbrus has two summits, the east summit being the lower of the two at 5,621 meters, both of which are dominant volcanic domes.

The Caucasus Mountains are the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Arabian plate moving northward with respect to the Eurasian plate. They form a continuation of the Himalayas, which are being pressed upwards by a similar collison zone with the Eurasian and Indian plates. The entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity, especially as the fault structure is complex with the Anatolia/Turkey and Iranian Blocks flowing sidewise, which prevents subduction of the advancing plate edge and hence the lack of volcanoes

Atlas Mountains

The Atlas Mountains ‎ is a mountain range transversely a northern stretch of Africa extending concerning 2,400 km (1,500 miles) all the way through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The uppermost climax is Jbel Toubkal, with a distance from the ground of 4,167 metres (13,671 ft) in southwestern Morocco. The second highest mountain is the M'Goun of 4,071 metres (13,356 ft). The Atlas ranges divide the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert. The inhabitants of the Atlas Mountains are mostly Berber tribes in Morocco and kabyles in Algeria. The vocabulary for ‘mountain’ in several Berber languages is adrar and adras, believed to be similar with the toponym.

The mountains are alienated into extra and separate ranges, as well as the Middle Atlas, High Atlas, and Anti-Atlas. The lower Tell Atlas organization close to the coast and the larger Saharan Atlas running more south terminate in the Aurès Mountains situated in Algeria and Tunisia. The Atlas Mountains compose one of the discrete physiographic provinces of the larger African Alpine System division.

Cotopaxi

Cotopaxi (0.7S 78.4W) is a stratovolcano with a summit altitude of 19,388 feet (5,911 m). It has erupted 50 times since 1738. The 1877 epidemic melted snow and ice on the summit, which produced mudflows that traveled 60 miles (100 km) from the volcano. The most topical eruption of Cotopaxi ended in 1904. Reports of an explosion in 1942 have not been confirmed. The most recent commotion was an increase in steam emissions, melting snow, and small earthquakes from 1975-1976.

Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver at Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador. GPS uses data transmitted by orbiting satellites to situate points on the ground. The USGS has made baseline GPS measurements at numerous volcanoes in the United States and in Latin America. In the event of an arousing of one of these volcanoes, GPS receivers would be set up at these points again to resolve whether or not computable buckle had occurred and to monitor for precursory buckle that might herald an eruption.

Mt. Whtiney

Mt. Whitney is the most frequently climbed peak in the Sierra Nevada, if not in the US. Because of this, the National Park Service and the US Forest Service, who manage the Whitney Portal Trailhead, have implemented a permit system to minimize the impact of day-hikers on the Mt. Whitney backcountry. All hikers entering the Mt. Whitney zone, including day-hikers, are required to obtain a permit—either your park wilderness permit if you are entering the zone from the west or an Inyo National Forest Whitney Zone permit if you are entering from the east.

Mt. Whitney can be most directly reached by a 10.7 mile (17.1 km) trail from Whitney Portal, 13 miles (21 km) west of the town of Lone Pine on the east side of the Sierra. Ice axes and crampons are needed in spring and early summer, but technical climbing equipment is not usually necessary between mid-July and early October. The elevation at the trailhead is 8360' (2550 meters). The elevation at the summit is 14,491' (4417 meters).

Mount Abu

The town of Mount Abu, the only hill station in Rajasthan, is located at an elevation of 1220 meters. It has been a popular retreat from the heat of Rajasthan and neighboring Gujarat for centuries. The Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1960 and covers 290 km² of the mountain.

Mount Abu is home to a number of Jain temples. The Dilwara Temples are a complex of temples, carved of white marble, that were built between the 11th and 13th centuries AD. The oldest of these is the Vimal Vasahi temple, built in 1031 AD by Vimal Shah and dedicated to the first of the Jain Tirthankaras. The Lun Vasahi Temple was built in 1231 AD by the brothers Vastupal and Tejpal, who belonged to the Porwal Jain community. They were ministers of Raja Vir Dhawal, a local ruler of Gujarat.

Chinese Calender

Australia follows the Gregorian calendar. Although the People's Republic of China follows the Gregorian calendar for its day-to-day business, the dates of the Chinese New Year and other important festivals are determined by the Chinese calendar which is thought to have been invented by Emperor Huangdi, nearly 3000 years BC.

The Chinese tradition follows a different calendar to the calendar followed in Australia. The Chinese lunar year is divided into 12 months of 29 or 30 days. The calendar is adjusted to the length of the solar year by the addition of extra months at regular intervals. The years are arranged in major cycles of 60 years.

Each successive year is named after one of 12 animals, and these 12-year cycles are continuously repeated. The Chinese New Year is celebrated at the second new moon after the winter solstice and falls between 21 January and 19 February on the Gregorian calendar. The year 2008 translates to the Chinese year 4705-4706.

Mount Hood

Mount Hood from Portland, Oregon. When Mount Hood next erupts, Portland could be affected by light ashfalls similar to those it experienced during the 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens. The city will not be directly affected by lava flows, pyroclastic flows, or lahars, but regional transportation and water supplies could be disrupted. (Photo by David Wieprecht, USGS).

Mount Hood is more than 500,000 years old. The volcano has grown in fits and starts, with decades to centuries of frequent eruptions separated by quiet periods lasting from centuries to more than 10,000 years. In the recent past, Mount Hood has had two significant eruptive periods, one about 1,500 years ago and the other about 200 years ago.

Gasherbrum

At the head of the Baltoro Glacier, at the end of one of the world's most famed mountain walks, lies the heaviest and most remote concentration of high peaks on the planet.
Gasherbrum II is part of the greater Gasherbrum group of 5 peaks, 2 of which soar over 8000m, and is the world’s 13th highest mountain. She is roundly held as one of the most straight-forward and accessible of the fourteen, and climbers on her normal route, if sufficiently resourced and prepared, enjoy reasonable summit rates in clement weather. She is of course an 8000er, and as such repels many dozens of climbers every year. In 2004 some 38 climbers from multiple nationalities reached her summit after a small weather window opened near the end of the season.

The route of choice is the SW ridge. A mostly clearly defined spur that is relatively free of objective dangers. Nonetheless history shows more than a few climbers have perished on this route due to these causes. If you want to climb G2, you will need outstanding stamina, a fierce determination, and an ability to deal with 'expedition downtime' - boredom, apathy, lethargy, and cold lonely nights on the glacier.

8K peaks are to climbers what the Grand Slam series is to tennis players (with the exception that there are no spectators at 26,000ft). So if your not ready yet for your "Wimbledon" your not ready for G2. In real terms, you should have several serious seasons of climbing at or above 6500m before you can contemplate an ascent of Gasherbrum II or any other 8000m peak. Generally most expeditions that come here allot up to 55 days to climb this mountain from arrival in Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan.

Davis Peak

Davis Peak is a mountain just north of Diablo Lake in North Cascades National Park, in the US state of Washington. It is situated just south of the Picket variety. While not of predominantly high altitude, even for the North Cascades, it is prominent for its large, steep local respite, and in particular for its huge Northeast Face, which drops 5,250 ft (1,600 m) in one parallel mile (1.6 km). This is one of the two largest perpendicular drops in one horizontal mile in the adjacent United States, the other being the North Face of Kinnerly Peak. Davis Peak is named for the early homesteading family of Lucinda Davis, who built and ran a roadhouse for trappers, miners and other travelers at the base of the peak, near present day Diablo, prior to the influx of roads or rail, circa 1900.

Whether you are coming from the east or the west on I-90, you need to depart at Cle Elum. Look for SR 903 as it heads from Cle Elum to Rosyln. It is about 19 miles to Salmon La Sac and just before the campground and a bridge you would cross if you went too far, there is a road that angles up to the right and 1.7 miles of bumpy washboarded road will bring you to the signed exit for Davis Peak. Go left (north) and in fewer than a half mile the road descends to the TH. An extra area for parking is found just above the lower parking area and if you can't find polite parking, back track up the road to this nicer area to park. From the TH, descend to a crossing of a nice bridge that gets you nicely over the Cle Elum River.